This paper recovers and refines the method of residues—a historical and philosophical framework for anomaly-driven inquiry—through an examination of its origins and enduring role in the geosciences. We first reconstruct how John Herschel and William Whewell formulated this method in the early nineteenth century as a strategy for investigating complex systems with multiple interacting causes. While the method has been primarily associated with astronomy, we highlight its equally significant roots in the geosciences, especially in paleoclimatology and tidal research. We then trace its continued application in twentieth-century studies of the Earth’s solid-body tides, where researchers iteratively used residual discrepancies between theoretical models and precise measurements to uncover new physical causes and refine models of the Earth’s elasticity, internal structure, and oceanic loading. Drawing on this history, we develop a taxonomy of residues—distinguishing between discrepancies between theory and observation and those between alternative measurements—and argue that both constitute productive, quantitative anomalies. We conclude that the method of residues exemplifies a distinctive, iterative role for anomalies in scientific practice, one that advances research without crisis or theory change, and offers insights into the epistemic strategies by which the geosciences progressively disentangle the many causes shaping our planet.

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This paper synthesizes literature on human and biological diversity as it intersects with the philosophy of the geosciences, focusing on the fossil record and reconstructions of past diversity. We lay out the conceptual foundations of diversity science, such as choosing a unit of analysis, the practices through which these units are stabilized and standardized, and the temporal and genealogical relationships among them. We examine the evidential and inferential toolkit used to reconstruct past diversity, including data and reasoning styles. We illustrate the deployment of this toolkit with three case studies concerning how diversity emerges (Cambrian explosion), evolves (living fossils), and ends (mass extinctions). We also hint at venues for cross-fertilization between the study of humans and biodiversity, and future research directions. 

Philosphers have traditionally focused on the underdetermination of theories by evidence. However, many instances of underdetermination occur at a different scale, between data, models, and inferential methods. By looking at demographic inferences from contemporary genetic information to past human population, I distinguish between parameter identifiability and model misspecification as two different undetertermination problems, arising at different moments of the inferential process. This distinction, in turn, helps to understand the relationship between different scientific practices, such as model building and and evidence assessment in cases of underdetermination within inferential methods. It also advances a specific debate on underdetermination within the historical sciences, looking at how conditions of epistemic complexity (rather than epistemic scarcity) impact our knowledge of human origins.

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